Authenticity in Plato and Beyond: An Introduction to the Ideal of Authenticity

Introduction

The ideal of authenticity has been a recurring theme in the works of Plato, one of the most prominent figures in the history of Western philosophy. Plato was deeply concerned with questions of truth, knowledge, and the nature of reality, and here I wish to argue that he saw authenticity as a key aspect of these larger philosophical inquiries. In his metaphysics, the Theory of Forms, Plato argues that the world we experience through our senses is but a mere shadow of the true nature of reality that lies beyond our perceptions. This transcendent reality consists of abstract, eternal Forms or Ideas that can only be apprehended through reason and intellectual inquiry. According to Plato, authenticity involves aligning oneself with these Forms rather than being misled by misconceptions of the physical plane of the world.

Plato also emphasizes the importance of self-knowledge in the pursuit of authenticity. He argues that we must understand ourselves and our own limitations in order to achieve true wisdom and insight. This process of self-examination is a critical component of Platonic philosophy, and it remains a central concern for many contemporary thinkers in fields such as psychology and self-help. Coincidentally, Plato's conception of authenticity is not without its challenges and limitations. Some critics have argued that his emphasis on reason and intellectual inquiry can lead to a neglect of other aspects of human experience, such as emotion and intuition. Others have suggested that the ideal of authenticity can be used to justify harmful or destructive behaviour, such as the rejection of social norms or the pursuit of radical individualism.

Despite these criticisms, the ideal of authenticity remains a valuable and important concept in contemporary philosophical and psychological discourse. As scholars continue to grapple with questions of truth, identity, and the human condition, Plato's insights into the nature of authenticity and the pursuit of wisdom remain relevant and thought-provoking. The ideal of authenticity in the works of Plato is a rich and complex theme that offers many insights into the nature of human existence and the search for truth and meaning. Whether as a starting point for further inquiry or as a source of inspiration for personal reflection, I wish to contend in what follows that Plato's philosophy of the ideal of authenticity remains a living work, an enduring contribution to the ongoing conversation about what it means to live an authentic life alongside, and on rare occasions even in spite of, an appreciation of the prevailing sense of the common good.

Background.

Plato was a Greek philosopher who lived in Athens from approximately 428/427 BCE to 348/347 BCE. His philosophical works can be roughly divided into three periods: early, middle, and late. The early period includes works such as the Apology, Charmides, Euthyphro, Gorgias, Hippias Major, Hippias Minor, Ion, Laches, Lysis, and Protagoras. These works primarily focus on ethical and political issues, and they feature Socrates as the main interlocutor. In these dialogues, Plato's main concern is to define key ethical concepts such as justice, courage, and virtue.

The middle period includes works such as The Republic, Phaedo, Symposium, Meno, and Phaedrus. These works are characterized by a shift in focus from ethical and political issues to metaphysical and epistemological issues. In particular, The Republic is Plato's most famous work and deals with the nature of justice and the ideal state. The middle period is also notable for the introduction of the theory of Forms, which is central to Plato's philosophy.

The late period includes works such as the Parmenides, Theaetetus, Sophist, Statesman, Philebus, and Timaeus. These works continue the exploration of metaphysical and epistemological issues and also deal with issues related to cosmology and theology. The Timaeus, for example, presents a creation myth and a cosmological account of the universe. Plato's works demonstrate a consistent concern with the nature of reality, knowledge, and ethics. While his early works focus more on ethical and political issues, his middle and late works increasingly turn to questions of metaphysics and epistemology. However, the theory of Forms remains a central feature of Plato's philosophy throughout his career.

Situating the ideal of authenticity.

Authenticity is a complex concept that has been situated in various ways throughout history. Commonly, the term in question refers to the degree to which something is genuine, true, or real. In the context of philosophy and psychology, authenticity has been a topic of great interest, particularly in the works of Plato. However, no single definition of authenticity has been universally accepted. The concept of authenticity is not, for instance, explicitly discussed in the works of Plato's arguably greatest student Aristotle. That being so, Aristotle's ideas on the concept of selfhood and the pursuit of eudaimonia can be connected to a more modern understanding of authenticity.

Aristotle believed that the highest goal of human life is eudaimonia, which is often translated as happiness or flourishing. For Aristotle, eudaimonia is achieved through pursuing virtue and living according to reason. He believed that a virtuous person acts according to their own nature, using reason to guide their actions. In his Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle discusses the importance of self-knowledge in the pursuit of eudaimonia. He writes, "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them, e.g., men become builders by building and lyre-players by playing the lyre; so too we become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts." (NE II.4)

Aristotle also believed that human beings have a telos or an end goal that is specific to their nature as rational beings. He believed that the pursuit of eudaimonia involves realizing one's telos and living in accordance with it. While Aristotle does not use the term authenticity, his ideas on self-knowledge, the pursuit of virtue, and the realization of one's telos can be seen as related to the modern concept of authenticity. By understanding and living in accordance with one's own nature and telos, a person can live a life that is true to themselves and achieve eudaimonia.

Kierkegaard's philosophy revolves around the concept of the individual's subjective experience, and his writings discuss the importance of authenticity in one's life. Kierkegaard writes that authenticity is the foundation of human existence and that living authentically is essential to achieving one's true self. He argues that individuals must take responsibility for their lives and make their own choices rather than relying on external norms or conventions.

In his 1844 book The Concept of Anxiety (Danish: Begrebet Angest), Kierkegaard writes about the importance of authenticity in confronting anxiety. He argues that anxiety arises when an individual confronts the possibility of their freedom and responsibility. Kierkegaard believes that individuals must face their anxieties and embrace their existence to live authentically. In another work from 1849, The Sickness unto Death (Danish: Sygdommen til Døden), Kierkegaard emphasizes the importance of living in accordance with one's true self rather than conforming to external expectations. He writes that individuals must recognize their own mortality and embrace the anxiety that comes with it in order to live an authentic life. Kierkegaard's philosophy emphasizes the importance of individuality, subjectivity, and authenticity in living a fulfilling life. He believes that individuals must take responsibility for their existence and make their own choices to achieve their true self.

Fyodor Dostoevsky's literary works explore in exquisite anguish the theme of authenticity through his characters' struggles with their inner conflicts and the search for their true selves. In his 1864 novel, Notes from Underground, the protagonist, known as the Underground Man, wrestles with his sense of alienation and disconnection from society. He rejects the notion of rational self-interest and instead embraces his own irrational desires, believing that the pursuit of pleasure is the only authentic way to live.

In Crime and Punishment, Dostoevsky (1866) delves into the psychology of the protagonist, Raskolnikov, as he grapples with guilt and the consequences of his actions. Raskolnikov's quest for authenticity is reflected in his belief that he is a superman, above the law and societal norms. However, he ultimately realizes that his actions have consequences and that he cannot escape the moral laws of society.

Dostoevsky's exploration of authenticity extends to his characters' relationships with others as well. In The Brothers Karamazov (1880), the three brothers, Ivan, Dmitry, and Alyosha, represent different aspects of the human psyche, with Ivan representing the intellect, Dmitry representing the will, and Alyosha representing the spirit. Each brother struggles with their own sense of authenticity, with Ivan questioning the existence of God and morality, Dmitry struggling with his passions and desires, and Alyosha seeking to reconcile his religious beliefs with the realities of the world. 

Through these characters and their struggles, Dostoevsky vigorously highlights the importance of authenticity in living a meaningful life. Dostoevsky might be suggested to commend his reader towards an ideal of authenticity that comes not from rejecting societal norms and pursuing pleasure at all costs but from confronting one's inner conflicts, accepting responsibility for one's actions, and striving to live in accordance with one's values.

Jean-Paul Sartre, a prominent existentialist philosopher, defines authenticity as the state of being true to oneself and argues that it is a fundamental aspect of human existence. According to Sartre, authenticity involves taking full responsibility for one's actions and choices and rejecting the idea of predetermined fate or external constraints on one's freedom. Sartre asserts that authenticity requires a continuous process of self-examination and self-reflection and a willingness to confront and acknowledge uncomfortable truths about oneself. He argues that individuals often try to escape their freedom and responsibility by conforming to social norms and expectations, which he calls "bad faith" (Being and Nothingness, 1943). In contrast, the authentic individual embraces their freedom and actively creates their own meaning and purpose in life. To be authentic, Sartre thinks, is to be true to oneself, and to be true to oneself is to confront the world as it is, not as it ought to be, to accept responsibility for one's choices and actions, and to create meaning and purpose in an inherently meaningless world. Sartre's conception of authenticity has been influential in existentialist and humanist philosophy, as well as in psychology and psychotherapy. For Sartre, authenticity emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and responsibility and provides a framework for understanding the challenges and opportunities of the human condition.

Another definition of authenticity is provided by Martin Heidegger, who argues that authenticity requires individuals to confront their mortality and live in a way that acknowledges the finitude of their existence. For Heidegger, authenticity is predicated upon a recognition of the conscious awareness of the temporary nature of human life and the need to live in a way that is conscious of mortality while true to one's lived existence. Heidegger's definition of authenticity is a key aspect of his philosophy, particularly in his work Being and Time (1927). According to Heidegger, authenticity is a mode of existence in which an individual recognizes and accepts their own mortality and the inevitability of their own death. This recognition leads to a sense of responsibility for one's own existence and an appreciation for the finitude of life. In contrast, inauthenticity is characterized by a lack of awareness or acceptance of death and a tendency to live in a superficial and meaningless way.

For Heidegger, authenticity is closely linked to the concept of Dasein, that is, being toward death, which he defines as a fundamental aspect of human existence. By recognizing their own mortality, individuals are forced to confront the fact that their time on earth is finite and must be used wisely. This recognition, in turn, leads to a sense of responsibility for one's own life and a desire to make the most of the time that one has. Heidegger's conception of authenticity has been influential in a variety of fields, including philosophy, psychology, and literary theory. Many contemporary thinkers have drawn on his ideas in their own work, and his philosophy continues to be the subject of debate and discussion.

One example of Heidegger's conception of authenticity can be found in Being and Time, where he writes: "Death is the possibility of the absolute impossibility of Dasein [human existence]. This possibility reveals itself in anxiety as the mode of being in which Dasein is its possibility in its uttermost and thus inauthenticity in its total averageness." (Heidegger, 1962, p. 292). In this passage, Heidegger emphasizes the importance of recognizing the possibility of death and the role that anxiety can play in bringing this recognition about.

Another example can be found in Heidegger's (1949) extended essay What is Metaphysics? where he writes: "Man stands in the midst of beings as the one who is open to Being, who is open because he can die. It is only because Dasein is a being-toward-death that it can be authentic." (Heidegger, 1962, p. 95). Here, Heidegger connects the concept of authenticity to the idea of being open to the mystery of Being and suggests that this openness is only possible through an awareness of one's own mortality. Heidegger's definition of authenticity emphasizes the importance of recognizing the finite nature of human existence and taking responsibility for one's own life in that precise context. This conception of authenticity has had a significant impact on human sciences and continues to be the subject of ongoing discussion and debate.

Donald Winnicott, a British psychoanalyst, developed the concept of the "true self," which emphasizes the importance of a child's early environment in fostering the development of a cohesive and authentic sense of self. According to Winnicott, in his 1956c paper, Primary Maternal Preoccupation, the true self is the aspect of the individual that represents their innate and unique sense of selfhood established in the face of annihilation where no annihilation occurs; this is in contrast to the development of the "false self," which is said (1960) to develop as a defence mechanism in response to external pressures and expectations.

In contrast to Plato's ideal of authenticity, Winnicott's concept of the true self highlights the crucial role of external factors, particularly the child's relationship with their primary caregiver, in the development of a coherent and persistent sense of self.Winnicott argues that in order for a child to develop a true self, they must have a nurturing and supportive environment that allows them to explore and express their individuality without fear of annihilation, rejection or invalidation. Winnicott's notion stands in direct contrast to Plato's emphasis on individual self-reflection as the key to achieving authenticity. While both emphasize the importance of an authentic sense of self, they differ in their emphasis on the internal (pace Plato) versus external factors (pace Winnicott) that contribute to the development of authenticity.

(Please see Winnicott, D. W. (1960). Ego distortion in terms of true and false self. In The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment (pp. 140-152). Karnac Books.)

Theodor Adorno provides another definition of authenticity. The concept of authenticity for Adorno can be understood as the tension between individuality and social conformity, where the authentic individual resists the pressures of social norms and expectations. Adorno's conception of authenticity is often associated with his critique of mass culture and its homogenizing effects on individuals. One source that discusses Adorno's view of authenticity is the book Theodor Adorno: Key Concepts(2008) edited by Deborah Cook. In this book, Cook explains how Adorno sees authenticity as a response to the standardization and commodification of culture in modern society, which has led to a loss of individuality and creativity. Adorno believes that the truly authentic individual resists these forces and remains true to their unique identity and creative potential, even if this means going against social norms and expectations. Adorno sees authenticity as a way of resisting the dehumanizing effects of capitalist society, which reduces individuals to mere objects of consumption. Authenticity, for Adorno, is a way of reclaiming one's humanity and asserting one's subjectivity in the face of these forces. Adorno's conception of authenticity--namely, how can one not be inauthentic when one is defined by cultural and economic forces in what is an inauthentic society?--is closely tied to his broader critique of modern society and its effects on individuals and can be seen as a call to resist the pressures of conformity and commodification in order to maintain one's individuality and creativity.

Another definition of authenticity is provided by Charles Taylor, who argues that authenticity involves a sense of coherence between an individual's identity and their actions, beliefs, and values. Taylor believes that individuals must be true to themselves and their unique experiences to be authentic. In the 2018 work, The Ethics of Authenticity, Charles Taylor defines authenticity as a moral ideal of self-fulfilment through the expression of one's unique self. Taylor argues that in order to live an authentic life, one must be true to oneself, as opposed to conforming to external expectations or social norms. He emphasizes that authenticity is not simply about self-expression or individualism but rather a process of discovering one's inner nature and potential and living according to these insights.

Taylor suggests that authenticity is particularly relevant in modern times, where individuals are faced with a range of conflicting demands and competing values and are often alienated from their inner selves. He argues that to counteract this alienation, individuals must develop a strong sense of self-awareness and engage in self-discovery and self-expression. This process requires reflection, dialogue, and ongoing personal growth and development commitment. A range of philosophical traditions, including existentialism, phenomenology, and hermeneutics, influenced Taylor's conception of authenticity. He draws on the work of thinkers such as Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre and the Romantic tradition to develop his own distinctive understanding of authenticity.

These are just a few examples of the various attempts at situating a definition for authenticity that eminent thinkers have proposed. It is clear, I think, that the concept of authenticity is complex and multifaceted, and different thinkers have emphasised or deemphasised different aspects of the ideal of authenticity in their work.

The importance of the ideal of authenticity in Plato's mature philosophy

I wish to suggest that the ideal of authenticity is a fundamental concept in Plato's mature philosophy, as it is a central pillar in many of his philosophical theories. Plato was deeply concerned with the nature of reality and how we can come to know it, and he believed that living an authentic life was essential to this pursuit. One of the critical ways that Plato expressed the ideal of authenticity was through his Theory of Forms. According to this theory, there is a realm of perfect, abstract entities known as Forms, which exist independently of the physical world. These Forms are the ultimate source of truth, goodness, and beauty, and they provide a standard of authenticity against which all things in the physical world can be measured.

For Plato, the Forms represent the highest level of reality, and living an authentic life involves striving to align oneself with them. This means cultivating a deep understanding of the Forms and using that understanding to guide one's thoughts, actions, and decisions. By doing so, one can achieve a level of authenticity that transcends the physical world's limitations and allows for a more meaningful and fulfilling existence. In addition to the Theory of Forms, the ideal of authenticity is also crucial in Plato's Theory of Knowledge. Plato believed that proper knowledge comes from self-knowledge and that in order to know the world around us, we must first know ourselves. This requires a commitment to authenticity, as we must be willing to confront our own biases, prejudices, and limitations in order to gain a clear understanding of who we are and what we believe. The ideal of authenticity plays a crucial role in Plato's Theory of Ethics. For Plato, living an authentic life is not just a matter of intellectual pursuit but is also essential for living a virtuous life. By aligning oneself with the Forms and pursuing a life of authenticity, one can cultivate the virtues of wisdom, courage, and justice and live in harmony with the world around us. The ideal of authenticity is a crucial concept in Plato's philosophy, as it underlies many of his most important theories. By striving to live an authentic life, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and the world around us and achieve a level of fulfilment and meaning that transcends the physical world's limitations. 

Authenticity in Platonic Thought

Plato's notion of authenticity is central to his philosophical discourse, as it serves as a pivotal touchstone in numerous facets of his theoretical framework. To Plato, the pursuit of authenticity entails being true to oneself and the fundamental nature of reality by recognizing the realm of Forms as the highest level of existence and striving to align oneself with its transcendent reality. The Forms, as perfect, abstract entities that exist beyond the physical realm, offer a standard of authenticity against which all physical phenomena can be measured. The quest for authenticity involves cultivating a profound comprehension of the Forms and utilizing this knowledge to guide one's actions, decisions, and thoughts. In doing so, one can attain a level of authenticity that surpasses the physical realm's inherent limitations, culminating in a more meaningful and fulfilling existence.

Plato's ideal of authenticity is intricately interwoven with his Theory of Knowledge, which postulates that true knowledge arises from self-knowledge. As such, one must be willing to confront personal biases, prejudices, and limitations to attain clarity of self-awareness before acquiring an understanding of the external world. Plato's ethical theory also underscores the significance of authenticity, where living an authentic life is viewed as paramount for leading a virtuous life. By aligning oneself with the Forms and pursuing a life of authenticity, one can cultivate the virtues of wisdom, courage, and justice and achieve an equilibrium with the world around us. Plato's ideal of authenticity is an indispensable element of his philosophy, as it lies at the crux of several of his most notable theories. By endeavouring to live authentically and aligning oneself with the Forms, one can attain a deeper comprehension of the self and the external world, acquire true knowledge, cultivate virtues, and live a more meaningful and fulfilling existence.

The Ideal of Authenticity in Plato's Theory of Forms 

A brief explanation of Plato's Theory of Forms.

Plato's Theory of Forms is one of Western thought's most influential philosophical concepts. It is a metaphysical theory that posits the existence of two separate realms: the physical realm and the realm of Forms. The physical realm is the world of appearances, subject to change and impermanence. In contrast, the realm of Forms is the world of eternal and immutable entities which exist beyond the physical realm. The concept of Forms is central to Plato's philosophy, and he uses it to explain many aspects of reality, including knowledge, morality, and beauty. According to Plato, the Forms are not physical objects that can be perceived through the senses but are abstract entities that can only be apprehended through reason and intellectual inquiry.

One of the most famous examples of Forms is the Form of the Good. In his dialogue, Republic, Plato describes the Form of the Good as the ultimate source of all knowledge, morality, and beauty. He argues that all other Forms, such as the Forms of justice, beauty, and courage, are derived from the Form of the Good. Plato's Theory of Forms has been subject to much scholarly debate. Some scholars argue that it is a robust and coherent ontology of reality, while others criticize it for positing an inaccessible realm of Forms that is beyond human comprehension. Nevertheless, the Theory of Forms has profoundly influenced philosophy and continues to be studied and debated to this day.

One of the most comprehensive works on Plato's Theory of Forms is The Forms in Plato's Republic by G.R.F. Ferrari. In this book, Ferrari provides a detailed analysis of the Forms in the context of Plato's Republic, highlighting their role in the development of Plato's political philosophy. Another important work is Plato's Forms in Transition: A Reading of the Parmenides by Joshua Wilburn. Wilburn focuses on Plato's dialogue Parmenides, arguing that it provides a momentous transition in Plato's thinking about the Forms. Plato's Theory of Forms is a complex and nuanced philosophical concept that has significantly impacted Western thought. By positing the existence of a metaphysical realm of Forms, Plato provides a framework for understanding reality that emphasizes the importance of reason and intellectual inquiry. While the Theory of Forms has been subject to much scholarly debate, it remains a potent and influential concept in philosophy.

The role of the ideal of authenticity in the theory of Forms.

The ideal of authenticity is a crucial concept in Plato's Theory of Forms. According to Plato, the Forms are the ultimate reality, and the physical world is a mere reflection or copy of the Forms. The Forms are eternal and unchanging, whereas the physical world is subject to change and decay. In this context, authenticity refers to the correspondence between the physical world and the Forms. Plato argues that the physical world is not authentic because it constantly changes and is therefore not a true representation of the Forms. Authenticity can only be achieved through the intellect, which allows one to access the realm of Forms and apprehend their true nature. In Plato's view, philosophy aims to attain this level of authenticity, which is the highest form of knowledge.

The role of authenticity in the Theory of Forms is twofold. Firstly, it provides a criterion for distinguishing between true knowledge and mere opinion. According to Plato, true knowledge is knowledge of the Forms obtained through intellectual inquiry. In contrast, opinions are less authentic and based on the physical world. Secondly, authenticity is essential for moral and ethical conduct. In Plato's view, the Forms provide the ultimate standard for morality and ethics. On the other hand, the physical world is characterized by imperfection and inconsistency, making it an unreliable source of moral guidance. One can achieve true moral and ethical excellence, says Plato, only by attaining authentic knowledge of the Forms.

The concept of authenticity in the Theory of Forms has been the subject of much scholarly debate. Some scholars argue that Plato's emphasis on authenticity reflects his belief in the importance of individuality and personal identity. Others argue that authenticity is a necessary condition for achieving a meaningful existence. One important work on the role of authenticity in the Theory of Forms is Plato's Theory of Forms by Gail Fine. In this book, Fine provides a detailed analysis of the concept of authenticity in Plato's philosophy, examining its role in epistemology, ethics, and metaphysics. Another influential work is Plato's Parmenides and Its Heritage: History and Interpretation from the Old Academy to Later Platonism and Gnosticism by John D. Turner. Turner focuses on the role of authenticity in Plato's dialogue Parmenides, arguing that it reflects the tension between the One and the Many in Plato's philosophy. The ideal of authenticity is a fundamental concept in Plato's Theory of Forms. It provides a criterion for distinguishing between true knowledge and mere opinion and is essential for achieving moral and ethical excellence. The role of authenticity in the Theory of Forms has been the subject of much scholarly debate and continues to be a topic of interest in contemporary philosophy.

The Theory of Forms as the source of authenticity

Plato's Theory of Forms posits that reality comprises two realms, the physical and the metaphysical. The physical realm consists of the world of appearances, which is subject to change and impermanence. On the other hand, the metaphysical realm is eternal and unchanging and the source of true knowledge and understanding. According to Plato, the metaphysical realm is the realm of Forms, which are perfect and immutable entities that exist beyond the physical realm.

Plato argues that knowledge of the Forms is the only path to true authenticity. In his dialogue Phaedo, Plato describes Socrates' view that "the knowledge of the real, which is the knowledge of the Forms, is the only thing that is good and the only thing that is worth living for" (Phaedo 79a). In other words, true authenticity can only be achieved by transcending the limitations of the physical realm and attaining knowledge of the eternal and unchanging Forms.

Plato also connects the pursuit of authenticity to the idea of self-knowledge. In his dialogue, The Apology, he has Socrates state that "the unexamined life is not worth living" (The Apology 38a). In other words, one must engage in self-reflection and introspection to gain a deeper understanding of oneself and the world around them, which can lead to a more authentic existence. This notion is further elaborated in Plato's Symposium, where he describes the pursuit of love as a way of seeking knowledge of the Forms and achieving greater authenticity (Symposium 211d). Plato's Theory of Forms as the source of authenticity has been a subject of much scholarly debate. Some scholars have criticized Plato for positing an inaccessible realm of Forms that is beyond human comprehension, while others have praised him for providing a clear and coherent ontology of reality. However, regardless of these debates, Plato's Theory of Forms continues to significantly influence philosophy and has provided a rich source of inspiration for thinkers throughout history. Plato's Theory of Forms provides a compelling argument for the role of authenticity in human existence. By positing the existence of a metaphysical realm of perfect and immutable Forms, Plato highlights the importance of transcending the limitations of the physical realm to achieve a deeper understanding of reality. The pursuit of authenticity is closely connected to self-knowledge and the cultivation of virtues, underscoring the importance of reason and intellectual inquiry in the pursuit of knowledge.

The problem of determining the authenticity of things.

One of the recurring themes in Plato's works is the problem of determining the authenticity of particular things. In the context of his philosophy of Forms, this problem arises because the physical world is seen as a mere copy or reflection of the Forms, which are the ultimate reality. As a result, there is always a danger of mistaking the copies for the real thing.

One example of this problem can be seen in Plato's dialogue, Theaetetus, where the question of knowledge is discussed. The dialogue revolves around the question of what knowledge is and how it can be distinguished from mere opinion. Socrates argues that knowledge is a true belief that is accompanied by an account, or a justification, of why it is true. However, Theaetetus proposes that knowledge is simply perception, or the ability to recognize something when it is presented. The problem with Theaetetus' definition is that it fails to distinguish between the copies in the physical world and the true Forms. For example, someone might perceive a painting of a tree and believe that they have knowledge of what a tree is. However, this knowledge is only of the physical copy and not of the true Form of a tree. As a result, the problem of determining the authenticity of particular things arises.

Another example of this problem can be seen in Plato's dialogue, Meno, where the question of virtue is discussed. Meno asks Socrates to define virtue, but Socrates argues that he cannot do so until he knows the essence of virtue. In other words, he is looking for the Form of virtue, which is the ultimate reality. The problem with defining virtue in terms of particular examples is that it is difficult to determine what makes those examples virtuous. For example, if someone were to define virtue as courage, it would be challenging to determine what makes an act courageous. Is it the act itself, or is it the motivation behind the act? Without access to the Form of courage, it is difficult to determine what makes an act truly courageous and authentic. The problem of determining the authenticity of particular things is a recurring theme in Plato's works. This problem arises because the physical world is seen as a mere copy of the Forms, which are the ultimate reality. The problem is particularly acute in the domains of knowledge and virtue, where it is not easy to distinguish between the copies and the real thing. The problem of authenticity is a topic of ongoing scholarly debate and has been discussed in a number of works, including Plato's Theaetetus by Myles Burnyeat (1990) and Plato's Meno by Dominic Scott (2006).

The Ideal of Authenticity in Plato's Theory of Knowledge 

A brief explanation of Plato's Theory of Knowledge.

Plato's theory of knowledge, also known as epistemology, is one of the most significant contributions to Western philosophy. It is based on his belief that knowledge is not obtained through sensory experience but rather through reason and the contemplation of abstract ideas or Forms. According to Plato, the world we experience through our senses is a world of change and impermanence. Things in this world come into existence and then cease to exist, and therefore cannot provide us with any permanent or absolute knowledge. However, he believed that a world of eternal and unchanging reality is accessible through reason and contemplation.

This world of eternal reality is the world of Forms. Forms are abstract, universal concepts that are independent of individual instances. For example, a Form of beauty exists independently of any beautiful object we may encounter in the physical world. By contemplating these Forms, we can gain knowledge of the eternal and unchanging truths that underlie reality. Plato believed that knowledge is a matter of collecting information and recognizing the relationship between individual instances and their corresponding Forms. He compared this process to that of a sculptor who creates a statue by chiselling away at a block of marble until the perfect form is revealed. In the same way, knowledge involves the recognition and contemplation of the underlying Forms that exist independently of individual instances.

However, Plato also acknowledged that there are different degrees of knowledge and that not everyone can achieve the highest levels of understanding. In his dialogue, The Republic, he presents the allegory of the cave to illustrate the different stages of intellectual development. In this allegory, people are chained in a cave and can only see shadows of objects on the wall before them. Only a philosopher, who has turned away from the shadows and seen the true Forms outside the cave, can achieve the highest level of understanding.

Plato's theory of knowledge has been the subject of extensive scholarly discussion and debate. Some critics have argued that his emphasis on reason and contemplation neglects the importance of sensory experience in the acquisition of knowledge. Others have pointed out that his theory relies on a belief in the existence of abstract, universal concepts that cannot be proven to exist in reality. Nevertheless, Plato's theory of knowledge has significantly influenced Western philosophy and continues to be studied and debated by scholars today. Some important sources for further study must include Plato's works themselves, as well as secondary sources such as The Cambridge Companion to Plato's Republic, edited by G.R.F. Ferrari (2007) and The Cambridge Companion to Plato, edited by Richard Kraut (1992/2009).

The role of the ideal of authenticity in the Theory of Knowledge.

The ideal of authenticity is central to Plato's theory of knowledge. Plato believed that true knowledge is not simply a matter of collecting information through the senses but of understanding the true nature of reality by contemplating the eternal Forms. The ideal of authenticity refers to the importance of discovering and recognizing the true nature of things instead of being content with mere appearances or illusions. Plato believed that the only way to achieve true knowledge was to turn away from the sensory world and focus on the world of Forms. In his dialogue, Theaetetus, he compares the process of gaining knowledge to that of a midwife, who helps a mother give birth to a child. The philosopher acts as a midwife to ideas, helping to bring them into the light of understanding.

One of the critical elements of this process is the recognition of the distinction between appearance and reality. Plato believed that the world of appearances, which is accessible through the senses, is inherently deceptive and unreliable. In contrast, the world of Forms represents the true nature of reality and is the only source of reliable knowledge. The ideal of authenticity plays an important role in this process, as it requires a willingness to challenge one's beliefs and assumptions to discover the truth. In his dialogue, Meno, Plato describes a process of inquiry known as elenchus, in which a philosopher questions a person's beliefs in order to expose their inconsistencies and contradictions. Through this process, the person is led to recognize the limitations of their own knowledge and to seek a deeper understanding of reality.

The ideal of authenticity also emphasizes the importance of self-examination and self-awareness. In his dialogue, Phaedo, Plato describes the process of philosophical purification, in which the soul is purified through a process of contemplation and reflection. By examining one's own beliefs and desires, one can come to a deeper understanding of the nature of reality and the true source of knowledge. Plato's emphasis on the ideal of authenticity has been the subject of much scholarly discussion and debate. Some critics have argued that his rejection of the sensory world is overly restrictive and neglects the importance of the ideal of objectivity or empirical evidence in the acquisition of knowledge. However, others have praised his emphasis on the importance of introspection, reflection, self-examination, and critical inquiry.

The importance of self-knowledge for the ideal of authenticity.

In the works of Plato, the ideal of authenticity is intimately linked with the concept of self-knowledge. Plato believed that true knowledge requires understanding the world of Forms and a deep understanding of oneself. This is because, according to Plato, the self is intimately connected with the eternal Forms and the ultimate reality of the universe.

One of the critical dialogues in which Plato discusses the importance of self-knowledge is the Charmides. In this dialogue, Socrates engages in discussion with Charmides about the nature of temperance, which is often translated as self-control or moderation. Through a series of questions, Socrates exposes the contradictions in Charmides' understanding of temperance and ultimately concludes that true temperance requires a deep knowledge of oneself. Plato's emphasis on self-knowledge is also evident in his conception of the human soul. In The Republic, he describes the soul as having three parts: the rational part, the spirited part, and the appetitive part. The rational part is responsible for intellectual activities, the spirited part for emotions and desires related to honour and prestige, and the appetitive part for physical desires such as hunger and thirst.

Plato believed that true authenticity requires the rational part of the soul to be in control of the other two parts. This requires not only an understanding of the nature of the soul but also a willingness to engage in the process of philosophical purification, in which one examines one's own beliefs and desires in order to achieve a deeper understanding of oneself. The ideal of authenticity also requires a recognition of the limitations of one's knowledge. In the Apology, Socrates famously declares that he knows nothing and that the only true wisdom is the recognition of one's ignorance. This humility and willingness to question one's beliefs is essential to pursuing the ideal of authenticity.

Between objective knowledge and the ideal of authenticity

As we have discussed earlier, pursuing the ideal of authenticity is closely linked to pursuing truth or objective knowledge. Plato believed that true knowledge requires not only an understanding of the world of Forms but also a deep understanding of oneself and a commitment to living in accordance with one's true nature. One way in which the pursuit of knowledge is related to the ideal of authenticity is through Plato's concept of the Forms. According to Plato, the Forms are eternal, unchanging, and perfect essences that exist outside of the physical world. They are the true objects of knowledge, and pursuing knowledge involves contemplating these Forms.

Plato believed that the pursuit of knowledge of the Forms was essential for living an authentic life. In the Phaedo, he argues that the soul is immortal, and that true wisdom consists in the recognition of the eternal and unchanging nature of the Forms. By contemplating the Forms, one can better understand oneself and the world and live according to one's true nature. Plato's emphasis on the importance of knowledge in the pursuit of authenticity is also evident in his theory of recollection. According to this theory, all knowledge is innate, and learning consists of the process of recollecting what the soul already knows. The process of recollection involves a deep introspective reflection on one's own experiences and beliefs and a recognition of the eternal nature of the Forms.

The relationship between knowledge and authenticity is also evident in Plato's concept of the philosopher-king. In The Republic, Plato argues that the ideal ruler is a philosopher who has achieved a deep understanding of the Forms and is committed to living in accordance with the principles of justice and wisdom. The philosopher-king is a symbol of authenticity and is able to lead society towards the pursuit of the good life. Plato's emphasis on the relationship between knowledge and authenticity is central to his philosophy. By pursuing both knowledge of the eternal and unchanging Forms and achieving a deep understanding of oneself and one's place in the world, one can live an authentic life according to one's true nature.

The Ideal of Authenticity in Plato's Theory of Ethics

A brief explanation of Plato's Theory of Ethics

Plato's Theory of Ethics centres around the idea that there is an objective standard for moral behaviour and that moral behaviour should be pursued for its own sake. The theory is grounded in the belief that a metaphysical realm of Forms, or abstract entities, is more real and more perfect than the material world we experience through our senses.

According to Plato, moral behaviour involves pursuing the virtues, which are abstract entities that exist in the realm of Forms. These virtues include wisdom, courage, justice, and temperance. To be truly virtuous, one must understand the Forms that correspond to each virtue and embody those Forms in one's own life. In Plato's view, pursuing virtue and attaining moral excellence is essential for a fulfilling life. In fact, he believed that the ultimate goal of human existence is to become as much like the Forms as possible. Plato's ethical theory is closely tied to his theory of the soul. He believed that the soul is made up of three parts: the rational, the spirited, and the appetitive. The soul's rational part is responsible for reason and intellect, the spirited part is responsible for emotions and desires, and the appetitive part is responsible for physical needs and desires. In order to achieve moral excellence, according to Plato, one must harmonize these three parts of the soul. The rational part must be in control of the other two parts, and the spirited and appetitive parts must be aligned with the rational part's pursuit of the virtues. Plato also believed that the pursuit of the virtues was essential for the flourishing of society as a whole. In his view, a just society is one in which each person fulfils their proper role based on their natural abilities and virtues. This idea is explored in depth in Plato's Republic, where he describes an ideal society in which people are assigned roles based on their inherent abilities and virtues. For further study of Plato's Theory of Ethics, reading ought to include Plato's Republic, Phaedo, and Gorgias.

The role of the ideal of authenticity in the Theory of Ethics

The ideal of authenticity plays a central role in Plato's Theory of Ethics, as it is essential for pursuing moral excellence and attaining the virtues. In Plato's view, authenticity involves aligning one's beliefs and actions with the objective standard of the Forms rather than being swayed by the changing opinions and desires of the material world. For Plato, authenticity involves a kind of self-knowledge in which one understands the true nature of oneself and the world around them. This self-knowledge is essential for the pursuit of the virtues, as it enables one to align their beliefs and actions with the Forms. In Plato's view, the pursuit of the virtues is important not only for personal fulfilment but also for the betterment of society as a whole.

In The Republic, Plato argues that justice is the most important virtue, as it involves each individual fulfilling their proper role in society. He emphasizes the importance of authenticity in this pursuit, stating that "the just man does not permit the several elements within him to interfere with one another, or any of them to do the work of others; he sets in order his own inner life and is his own master and his own law" (Book IV, 444e).

Plato's concept of authenticity is also tied to his belief in the soul's immortality. In the Phaedo, Socrates argues that the soul is immortal and that it is important to live an authentic life in order to prepare for the afterlife. Plato has Socrates offering the following statements with his accusatory interlocutors:

"And is there anything which is inseparable from life, and yet hates life, and is afraid of the cessation of life? 

That which is inanimate, he replied. 

And can there be anything better for the inanimate than what is best for the animate? 

Nothing, he said. But again, will he who loves the inanimate and the animate equally prefer to enjoy the life of the soul, or will he rather choose the life of the body? 

The soul, he replied, has the care of the inanimate and traverses the whole heaven in diverse forms appearing; and is variable and diverse. But the body is fastened and unalterable, and by its feebleness weighs down the soul, and is carried about as a penalty which is imposed upon it. The soul whose inseparable quality is life will never admit of life's opposite, death. And therefore, the soul is deathless and immortal." (Phaedo 64a-b).

In his discussion of the virtues, Plato emphasizes the importance of authenticity in the pursuit of wisdom, where Socrates states that "the man who has an authentic interest in wisdom is necessarily a lover of the truth" (Phaedo, 78b). 

Plato also connects authenticity to the virtues of courage and temperance, arguing that authentic individuals are able to resist temptation and pursue the right course of action even in the face of adversity. The ideal of authenticity plays a crucial role in Plato's Theory of Ethics, as it is essential for pursuing the virtues and attaining moral excellence.

The importance of an authentic life.

Plato considered living an authentic life as essential for achieving the ultimate goal of human existence: attaining the highest form of knowledge and wisdom. He believed that living an authentic life involved aligning one's actions and beliefs with the universal principles of truth and justice. In his view, authenticity requires individuals to be self-reflective and introspective and strive to improve continuously. Plato's emphasis on authenticity can be observed in his famous allegory of the cave. In the allegory, Plato describes a group of people who are chained to a wall, only able to see the shadows of objects projected on the wall in front of them. He argues that these people believe these shadows to be the only reality and that they are living in an inauthentic way. In contrast, those who break free from their chains and leave the cave to see the real objects and sunlight outside are living authentically.

Moreover, in his work The Republic, Plato identifies the virtues of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice as essential for leading an authentic life. He argues that these virtues can only be achieved through proper education and self-reflection, leading to a deeper understanding of the self and one's place in the world. Plato also believed that authenticity was necessary for ethical behaviour. In his dialogue Euthyphro, Plato explores the concept of piety and argues that an action is only considered pious if it is authentic and aligns with the universal principles of justice and morality.

For Plato, living an authentic life was essential to achieving the highest form of knowledge, wisdom, and ethical behaviour. Individuals can lead authentic lives through self-reflection, introspection, and aligning one's actions and beliefs with universal principles. This emphasis on authenticity can be seen in Plato's allegory of the cave, his identification of virtues, and his exploration of piety in Euthyphro.

The relation between virtue and the ideal of authenticity

Plato believed that living an authentic life requires the cultivation of virtues and that virtues are necessary for achieving authenticity. According to Plato, virtues are character qualities that enable us to act rightly and live well. They are developed through education and practice and are essential for living a good life. In the context of the ideal of authenticity, virtues are the means by which we achieve self-knowledge and come to understand our true selves. Plato believed that the virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice are necessary for achieving authenticity. Wisdom allows us to understand the nature of reality and our place in it, while courage enables us to face the truth about ourselves and our lives. Moderation helps us maintain balance and harmony in our lives, while justice ensures that we act according to what is right and fair.

Moreover, Plato argued that virtues are interconnected and that they work together to create a harmonious and virtuous life. For example, the virtue of wisdom helps us to understand the nature of reality and to make wise decisions, while the virtue of courage enables us to act on those decisions in the face of adversity. Similarly, moderation helps us avoid excess and maintain balance in our lives, while justice ensures that our actions are fair and just.

Plato's ideas about the relationship between virtue and authenticity are evident in his work, especially in his famous work The Republic. In this dialogue, he argues that the just person is authentic and that the virtues are necessary for achieving justice. He also argues that the virtues are interconnected and that they work together to create a just and harmonious society. Plato believed that virtues are essential for living an authentic life and that they are necessary for achieving self-knowledge and understanding our true selves. The virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation, and justice work together to create a harmonious and virtuous life, and they are essential for achieving authenticity. Plato's ideas about the relationship between virtue and authenticity are an important part of his philosophical legacy and continue to be studied and debated today.

Critique of Plato's Ideal of Authenticity 

Between the ideal of authenticity and the ideal of objectivity

A tension between the ideal of authenticity and the ideal of objectivity often characterizes Plato's works. On the one hand, Plato emphasizes the importance of living an authentic life, in which one strives to align one's thoughts, words, and deeds with one's true self. On the other hand, Plato is also concerned with discovering objective truths about the world, including the nature of reality, the origins of knowledge, and the principles of morality. In this context, the ideal of authenticity can sometimes be seen as a hindrance to the pursuit of objectivity since it emphasizes the individual's subjective experience over the world's objective reality.

One example of this tension can be seen in Plato's allegory of the cave, which appears in Book VII of The Republic. In this allegory, a group of people are chained up in a cave and forced to watch shadows cast on a wall by a fire behind them. The people take these shadows as the only reality and are unaware of the world's true nature outside the cave. However, one of the people is eventually freed and led out of the cave, where he is able to see the true nature of reality. When he returns to the cave to share his knowledge with the others, they reject him and refuse to believe that the shadows they have always known are not the only reality. In this allegory, the ideal of objectivity is represented by the person who is able to see the true nature of reality outside the cave. This person represents the philosopher, who seeks to discover objective truths about the world through reason and observation. However, the other people in the cave represent those trapped in the world of appearances and unable or unwilling to see beyond the shadows they have always known. The tension between the ideal of authenticity and the ideal of objectivity arises because the person who can see the true nature of reality must reject the authenticity of the world of appearances to pursue objective knowledge.

Another example of this tension can be seen in Plato's dialogue Theaetetus, which explores the nature of knowledge and the origins of intellectual virtues. In this dialogue, Socrates argues that knowledge is not simply a matter of subjective opinion or belief but must be grounded in objective reality. However, Theaetetus, the main interlocutor, struggles to reconcile this view with his sense of authenticity, which he believes is based on his own subjective experience and intuition.

The tension between the ideal of authenticity and the ideal of objectivity can also be seen in Plato's account of the tripartite soul in The Republic. In this account, the soul is divided into three parts: the rational, the spirited, and the appetitive. The ideal of authenticity is related to the soul's rational part, which seeks to align itself with objective reality through reason and reflection. However, the spirited and appetitive parts of the soul are more concerned with subjective experience and desire and can sometimes lead the individual away from the pursuit of objective truth.

The profound tension between the ideal of authenticity and the ideal of objectivity in Plato's works reflects a fundamental philosophical question about the relationship between the subjective experience of the individual and the objective reality of the world. While Plato emphasizes the importance of living an authentic life, he also recognizes the need to discover objective truths about the world and sometimes sees the pursuit of authenticity as a hindrance to this goal. For Plato, any such resolution of this tension requires humans to develop a nuanced and sophisticated understanding of the relationship between the individual and the world and the role that authenticity and objectivity play in shaping our understanding of reality.

Plato's tension between authenticity and objectivity can be seen in his dialogues, particularly in The Republic, where he discusses the nature of justice. On the one hand, he emphasizes the importance of objective standards of justice, which he believes are based on the eternal Forms. On the other hand, he also emphasizes the importance of personal authenticity, which he believes is achieved by living in accordance with one's own true nature.

For example, in Book II of The Republic, Plato presents the character of Glaucon, who argues that people only act justly because of the fear of punishment or the desire for reputation. Plato responds by arguing that true justice is a virtue that is valuable for its own sake, regardless of its external consequences. However, he also emphasizes that the pursuit of justice must come from an authentic desire to be just rather than simply following external rules. Similarly, in Book IV of The Republic, Plato discusses the nature of the tripartite soul, which he argues is composed of reason, spirit, and desire. He emphasizes the importance of reason in governing the other parts of the soul and achieving internal harmony. He also acknowledges the importance, however, of authentic desires in guiding the individual's actions. Plato's tension between authenticity and objectivity is also evident in his treatment of art. In The Republic, he argues that art should promote the ideal Forms and educate people towards virtue. However, he also acknowledges that art can be valuable for its own sake as an expression of personal creativity and authenticity. Plato's works reveal a profound tension between the ideal of objectivity, which emphasizes the importance of universal standards and eternal Forms, and the ideal of authenticity, which emphasizes the importance of personal experience and individual nature. This deep tension reflects a broader philosophical debate about the nature of truth and the relationship between objective knowledge and subjective personal experience.

The problem of determining authenticity.

In Plato's works, there is a recurring problem of determining what is truly authentic. This problem arises because authenticity is a subjective concept that is difficult to define objectively. Plato grapples with this problem in several of his dialogues, including Phaedo, The Republic, and Philebus.

In Phaedo, Socrates discusses the nature of authenticity with his interlocutors. He argues that true authenticity can only be attained through knowledge of the Forms, which are the eternal, unchanging ideals that exist beyond the material world. By seeking knowledge of the Forms, individuals can transcend the limitations of their senses and achieve a deeper understanding of reality. This knowledge, according to Socrates, is the key to living an authentic life.

In The Republic, Plato discusses the problem of determining what is truly just. He argues that justice is an objective ideal that exists independently of human opinion. However, he acknowledges that determining what is truly just can be difficult because people's perceptions of justice are often influenced by their personal interests and biases. Plato's solution to this problem is to create an ideal society in which individuals are educated to recognize and pursue true justice.

In Philebus, Plato discusses the problem of determining what is truly good. He argues that there are two competing ideals of the good: pleasure and knowledge. While pleasure is a subjective ideal that varies from person to person, knowledge is an objective ideal that exists independently of human opinion. Plato suggests that individuals should strive to achieve a balance between these two ideals in order to live an authentic and fulfilling life.

The abovementioned works suggest that determining what is truly authentic requires a deep understanding of objective ideals such as knowledge and justice. However, these ideals can be difficult to attain because personal interests and biases often obscure them. Plato suggests that individuals must, therefore, engage in a lifelong process of self-examination and education in order to attain some close approximation to true authenticity.

The potential for the ideal of authenticity as a justification for harm.

In Plato's works, the ideal of authenticity is a complex concept that can be both empowering and potentially dangerous. While authenticity is often seen as a positive force that enables individuals to live in accordance with their true nature, it can also be used as a justification for irrational or harmful behaviour.

One example of this tension can be found in Plato's Republic, where the character of Thrasymachus argues that authenticity means acting in one's own self-interest, regardless of whether this behaviour is harmful to others. Thrasymachus claims that justice, often seen as a critical virtue in Plato's works, is merely a tool the powerful use to maintain their power over the weak. According to Thrasymachus, the truly authentic individual is one who is able to pursue their interests without regard for the interests of others. This view, however, is strongly contested by Socrates, who argues that authentic behaviour must be grounded in reason and the pursuit of the common good. Socrates maintains that true authenticity requires individuals to act in ways that are in harmony with the rational order of the universe rather than simply following their impulses and desires.

Another example of the potential for the ideal of authenticity to be used as a justification for harmful behaviour can be found in Plato's Phaedrus, where the character of Phaedrus argues that authentic speech is uncontrolled and free flowing, without regard for the consequences of one's words. This view is again contested by Socrates, who argues that authentic speech must be grounded in reason and careful consideration of the impact of one's words on others. While the ideal of authenticity is an important concept in Plato's works, it must also be carefully balanced against the need for reason and the pursuit of the common good. As these examples show, the potential for authenticity to be used as a justification for irrational or harmful behaviour must be carefully considered and addressed.

The limitations of the ideal of authenticity.

Plato's notion of authenticity is a complex and multifaceted ideal that requires a nuanced understanding. While authenticity is generally seen as a positive value, it can also have limitations and lead to harmful behaviour if not properly understood. Plato acknowledges authenticity's complexity in his works and emphasizes the need for a nuanced approach. In his dialogue Phaedrus, Plato discusses the nature of authenticity and the potential dangers of relying solely on one's personal desires and impulses as a measure of authenticity. He argues that true authenticity involves a balance between the rational and irrational aspects of the soul and requires a nuanced understanding of one's desires and impulses. Plato's emphasis on self-knowledge and self-examination is central to his idea of authenticity, and he argues that one must strive to understand the complexities of one's own psyche in order to live an authentic life.

Plato's The Republic also explores the limitations of authenticity, particularly in the context of political life. He argues that while authenticity is important for individuals, it can be dangerous in the context of a society that values stability and order. Plato suggests that the ideal society must be based on objective standards of justice rather than individual desires and impulses.Likewise, in his Parmenides dialogue, Plato recognizes the limitations of human understanding and the potential for misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the concept of authenticity. He argues that a nuanced and critical approach is necessary to fully understand authenticity's complexities and avoid harmful or irrational behaviour. Plato's works demonstrate the need for a nuanced understanding of authenticity that takes into account the complexities of the human psyche and the limitations of individual perspectives. While authenticity is an important ideal, it must be balanced with objective standards and a critical approach to avoid potential dangers and harmful behaviour.

Reflections in conclusion 

The ideal of authenticity plays a significant role in the works of Plato, particularly in his theories of knowledge, ethics, and metaphysics. For Plato, authenticity refers to the quality of being true to oneself and the Forms, which are the ultimate realities underlying all phenomena in the material world. Authenticity is closely associated to self-knowledge, as one must understand oneself and one's place in the world to achieve authenticity. Plato also recognizes the potential for authenticity to be used to justify irrational or harmful behaviour and stresses the need for a nuanced understanding of the concept that recognizes its complexities and limitations.

In Plato's Theory of Forms, authenticity is closely tied to the concept of objective truth, as the Forms are the ultimate sources of reality and authenticity. The Theory of Knowledge also emphasizes the importance of authenticity, as knowledge is only possible through a genuine and authentic understanding of the Forms. In Ethics, authenticity is necessary for virtuous behaviour and living a fulfilling life. Plato recognizes the tension between the ideal of authenticity and the ideal of objectivity, as any ideal of objectivity requires a certain detachment from one's own subjective experiences and biases.

Moreover, the problem of determining what is truly authentic and the potential for authenticity to be used as a justification for harmful behaviour highlights the need for a nuanced understanding of the concept. The limitations of authenticity are also recognized, as one may be limited by their own experiences and biases in their pursuit of authenticity. The concept of the ideal of authenticity in Plato's works is multifaceted and complex and requires a nuanced understanding that recognizes both its importance and limitations.

The ideal of authenticity in Plato's work remains relevant to contemporary philosophy and psychology. The concept of authenticity in contemporary discussions of psychology and philosophy draws significantly from Plato's works. The modern concept of authenticity centres on the idea of self-discovery and living according to one's unique values and beliefs. In this regard, Plato's ideal of authenticity provides a framework for contemporary discussions of self-knowledge and ethical living. Furthermore, the relationship between authenticity and knowledge discussed in Plato's works remains relevant to contemporary debates on the nature of knowledge and its relationship to personal identity.

The relevance of Plato's ideal of authenticity in contemporary philosophy is evident in the works of contemporary philosophers such as Charles Taylor, who draws from Plato's works to discuss the importance of authenticity in the modern world. In psychology, the ideal of authenticity has been influential in the development of humanistic and existential psychology.

The ideal of authenticity has been of interest not only in philosophy but also in the field of psychology and psychotherapy. In psychology, authenticity refers to the extent to which an individual is true to their own personality and values rather than being influenced by external factors such as social norms or the expectations of others. In psychotherapy, authenticity has been conceptualized as a therapeutic goal that involves helping clients to become more aware of their true selves, to be more honest about their feelings and thoughts, and to live in a way that is consistent with their own values and beliefs. One influential figure in the field of psychology who has written about the importance of authenticity is Carl Rogers. Rogers believed that authenticity, or congruence as he referred to it, was a key component of effective psychotherapy. He argued that therapists needed to be genuine and transparent with their clients in order to build trust and facilitate the therapeutic process. In his view, authenticity was beneficial not only for clients but also for therapists themselves, as it allowed them to lead more fulfilling and meaningful lives.

Another important contributor to the field of psychology who has written about authenticity is Erich Fromm. Fromm believed that authenticity was a necessary component of psychological health and well-being. He argued that in order to be authentic, individuals needed to be aware of their own needs and values and to act in a way that was consistent with these. Fromm believed that in modern society, many individuals had become alienated from their true selves and that this contributed to a range of psychological problems such as anxiety, depression, and addiction.

Contemporary psychologists and psychotherapists have continued to explore the concept of authenticity, with many seeing it as a crucial element of well-being and mental health. For example, researchers have found that authenticity is associated with greater life satisfaction, better emotional regulation, and more positive relationships (e.g., Sheldon et al., 2014; Wood et al., 2008).

Gabor Maté, a Canadian physician and author, has written extensively on the topic of authenticity in relation to addiction, trauma, and mental health. According to Maté, authenticity is about being true to oneself and one's own experiences, thoughts, and emotions rather than conforming to societal norms and expectations. Maté argues that many mental health problems, such as addiction, anxiety, and depression, can arise when individuals suppress their authentic selves in order to fit in with others or meet external expectations. He believes that true healing requires individuals to reconnect with their authentic selves and learn to accept and express their emotions, even if it goes against societal norms. In his 2008 book, In the Realm of Hungry Ghosts, Maté writes, "Addiction is an attempt to escape from stress, from pain, from trauma, from uncomfortable thoughts and feelings, from the sense of inadequacy and emptiness that afflicts us all. It is a futile attempt to escape from something that cannot be avoided. Authenticity means acknowledging that fact and learning to live with it, finding meaning in it" (2008, p. 178).

Maté also emphasizes the importance of compassion and self-compassion in the pursuit of authenticity. He believes that individuals must learn to be kind and gentle with themselves in order to fully embrace their authentic selves and heal from trauma and mental health issues. Maté's concept of authenticity in psychology is radical, he emphasizes the importance of being true to oneself and one's own experiences, even if it goes against societal norms. He believes that embracing one's authentic self and learning to accept and express one's emotions is crucial for mental health and healing from trauma and addiction.

In psychotherapy, approaches such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) emphasize the importance of authenticity and self-awareness in promoting mental health and well-being (e.g., Hayes et al., 2006; Segal et al., 2012).

The ideal of authenticity has played an important role in the field of psychology and psychotherapy, with many researchers and practitioners emphasizing the importance of being true to oneself in order to achieve psychological health and well-being.

(Please see Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change. Guilford Press.

Segal, Z. V., Williams, J. M. G., & Teasdale, J. D. (2012). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression: A new approach to preventing relapse. Guilford Press.

Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., & Reis, H. T. (2014). What makes for a good day? 'Competence and autonomy in the day and in the person'. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(10), 1281-1290.

Wood, A. M., Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Baliousis, M., & Joseph, S. (2008). 'The authentic personality: A theoretical and empirical conceptualization and the development of the Authenticity Scale'. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 55(3), 385-399.)

Moreover, the concept of authenticity has been applied in various domains, such as leadership, creativity, and education. For instance, the idea of authentic leadership emphasizes the importance of leaders being true to their values and beliefs, which resonates with Plato's concept of authenticity. Similarly, the idea of authentic creativity emphasizes the importance of creative individuals expressing their unique perspectives and ideas. The ideal of authenticity in Plato's works has significantly impacted contemporary philosophy and psychology. The concept of authenticity remains relevant to contemporary discussions of self-knowledge, ethical living, personal identity, and creativity. The ongoing relevance of Plato's ideal of authenticity to contemporary discussions underscores the importance of studying the works of ancient philosophers and their relevance to modern-day issues.

Plato's conception of authenticity is a crucial aspect of his larger philosophical project, and a nuanced understanding of it is necessary to appreciate his contributions to philosophy fully. As we have seen, authenticity in Plato's works is a multifaceted concept that is closely linked to his theories of knowledge, ethics, and metaphysics. At its core, authenticity in Plato's works refers to the search for the true nature or essence of things, which he believed could only be discovered through reason and contemplation. Plato's emphasis on authenticity is also intimately tied to his larger project of establishing a philosophical foundation for human understanding and action. By insisting on the importance of authentic knowledge and the pursuit of the true nature of things, Plato sought to provide a basis for ethical and political action that was grounded in reason and objective truth rather than mere opinion or convention. Moreover, the relevance of Plato's conception of authenticity extends far beyond the ancient world. Contemporary philosophers and psychologists continue to draw upon his ideas and insights, using them to explore questions about the nature of knowledge, truth, and the self. For example, the concept of authenticity has been employed in contemporary debates about the nature of human identity and the role of authenticity in self-expression and personal fulfilment. Understanding Plato's conception of the ideal of authenticity is perhaps essential for anyone seeking to engage with his larger philosophical project. From his theories of knowledge and ethics to his ideas about the nature of reality, Plato's emphasis on the ideal of authenticity remains a vital and enduring contribution to philosophy and continues to resonate with contemporary thinkers across various disciplines.

Likewise, understanding Plato's conception of authenticity can also help shed light on the development of Western philosophical and ethical thought. Plato's emphasis on authenticity as a critical component of a virtuous life has influenced later thinkers, such as, Søren Kierkegaard, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Martin Heidegger, John Paul Sartre, Theodor Adorno, and Charles Taylor who have explored similar themes in their works. In addition, the concept of authenticity has also become central to modern psychological theories and therapies, such as existentialism and humanistic psychology. These approaches emphasize the importance of authentic living and the potential consequences of denying one's true self. A nuanced understanding of the ideal of authenticity in Plato's work is essential for gaining insight into the complexities of his philosophical project and its ongoing relevance to contemporary thought. It also highlights the interdisciplinary nature of Plato's work and its influence on various fields of study, including philosophy, psychology, and ethics.

Bibliography

There are many translations of Plato's works available in English. Here are some of the highly regarded translations to which the reader may wish to refer:

The Collected Dialogues of Plato, edited by Edith Hamilton and Huntington Cairns, translated by various scholars. This is a comprehensive collection of Plato's works, including all of the dialogues, and is widely regarded as the gold standard for English translations. Please see Hamilton, E., & Cairns, H. (1961). The collected dialogues of Plato: Including the letters. Pantheon Books.

The Complete Works of Plato, edited by John M. Cooper, translated by various scholars. This collection includes all of Plato's works, including letters and other fragments. It is also highly regarded and includes helpful notes and introductions. Please see Cooper, J. M. (Ed.). (1997). Plato: Complete works. Hackett Publishing.

Plato: Complete Works, edited and translated by G.R.F. Ferrari and others. This is another complete collection of Plato's works but with translations by a different set of scholars. Please see Ferrari, G. R. (Ed.). (2003). Plato: Complete works. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing.

A distinct scholarly work on Plato's ethics is Terence Irwin's (1995) Plato's Ethics. Oxford University Press. Another most notable mention in the scholarship of Platonic ethics is Annas, J. (1993). The Morality of Happiness. Oxford University Press.

An excellent scholarly companion to the abovementioned can be found in the shape of Richard Kraut's (1992), The Cambridge Companion to Plato. Cambridge University Press.

The Republic, translated by G.R.F. Ferrari: This translation of Plato's most famous work is highly regarded for its accuracy and accessibility. Please see Ferrari, G. R. F. (Ed.). (2000). Plato: The Republic. Cambridge University Press.

Symposium, translated by Robin Waterfield: This translation of Plato's Symposium is widely considered to be one of the best, as it is both faithful to the original Greek and engaging to modern readers. Please see Waterfield, R. (Trans.). (1994). Plato: Symposium. Oxford University Press.

The excellent, trustworthy translation of Euthyphro by Reginald Allen and Glenn Raymond Morrow. (Trans. G. R. Morrow & R. E. Allen, 1981). Euthyphro. Indianapolis: Hackett.

I would also request that the reader acquaint themself with the excellent scholarship on authenticity by Charles Taylor, specifically Taylor, C. (1992). The ethics of authenticity. Harvard University Press.